The Articles of Association and the Smuggling Elite

"The King Drinks a Twelfth Night Feast," about 1645,
 by Jacob Jordaens.

by Sarah Lindecke

Twelfth Night of January 1775 likely looked different from past Twelfth Nights for the Schuylers. The political tension was unavoidable as American colonists faced numerous acts, foisted upon them by the English Parliament, restricting their purchasing of imported consumer goods, like sugar and tea. Combined with many colonists feeling over-taxed and over-burdened, many were pushed toward the idea of separating from England, though the sentiment was not universal. On top of these already tenuous conditions, goods and food normally used at the Schuylers’ lavish holiday celebrations had recently come under direct attack, too, but not by the British—by the colonists boycotting British import and export trade. Suddenly, the sugar, rum, Maderia, fancy silks for clothes, and even exotic fruits such as oranges, lemons, and pineapples, were off-limits… Unless the Schuylers crossed the boycott lines

Page 1 of the Articles of Association

The boycott came into effect through the Articles of Association, or the Continental Association, which was passed by the Continental Congress on October 20^th, 1774, and went into effect on December 1^st, 1774—just over a month before Twelfth Night. This set of Articles bound the colonies in unity under a non-importation/exportation agreement that banished all goods from or traded by England until the colonists’ demands for fairer treatment were met. The colonies wanted to significantly damage the financial strength England wielded over them through their import/export trade. The Association was also meant to promote the home-grown industry of the colonies to produce goods for local use. Local committees, known as Committees of Correspondence, were charged with enforcing the non-importation/exportation elements of the Articles while ensuring people were able to access necessities.

             Despite the unification felt by many colonists under the Articles, some of the wealthiest members of colonial society chose to forgo compliance with the Articles for their own comfort. Philip Schuyler [and his family were among those able to pick and choose how they wanted to comply or not comply with the new law. Though the family eventually became deeply involved with the rebels once the American Revolution began later in 1775, they were more interested in their own comfort and lavish lifestyle before joining the rebels. Many of the items they purchased for decoration, as well as for consumption, were imported. It was a status symbol to purchase a majority of goods from far flung lands, and the Schuylers were always concerned with status. They were personally and socially pressured to show off their wealth through the imports in their home and on their table.

             Unfortunately, access to imported merchant goods became complicated after the Articles of Association went into effect. The Schuylers were at a crossroads—adhere to the Articles and risk appearing common or find other ways to continue purchasing imported goods. A letter addressed to Philip Schuyler on January 1^st, 1775, from Ludlow Shaw & Ludlow, a trading company in New York City, hints at what lengths the Schuylers were willing to go to acquired now-blockaded goods. Ludlow wrote:

We hope the different parcells [sic] of goods we have Sent you up are got to hand _ and that they are aggregable to order _ the 10 hails we have a promise of which must remain here till the Spring, from the appearance of things we have no Expectation of any importation from great Brittain for a long timeIn a lengthy postscript, the Ludlow Shaw & Ludlow company further elucidates the relationship the Schuylers were building with them:

It is Customary with us from to time to time to give our Country Friends every Information we can respecting the price of prospect of Markets. For Grain for the Insuing [sic] Spring; our only fear s are that Government may put a stop to our Exports. Should that be cas [sic] great must be our distress_ but should not that take place … we think wheat will… be in good demand next Spring from the different advicses [sic] we have received _ But… we think in some measure to repay the Risk the purchases of Wheat Run they should take its in low _ Pott ash perhaps may be thought an object worthy your attention

"Vue de la Nouvelle Yorck" by Balthasar Friedrich Leizelt

This letter was sent to Philip Schuyler just a month after the Articles of Association went into effect, and it shows just how quickly plans were already being carried out to provide Schuyler with “parcells [sic] of goods.” To give the Schuylers and Ludlow benefit of the doubt, it’s possible these items were surplus goods that had been ordered by the company before the Articles went into effect, but were received shortly after the goods became banned. Over the months after the Articles went into effect, colonists seized trade goods and newspapers ran advertisements for auctions being held for the goods taken from British merchant ships. .While that is one way to explain the letter, it is just as likely that the Schuylers were making connections with Ludlow to continue receiving banned goods no matter how they were obtained. Unfortunately, because this letter also does not explicate what goods are being sent, it is difficult to know their provenance or how they were obtained. 

The postscript calls the Schuylers “Country Friends” of the company, or people who lived far from the centers of importing and exporting, but who wanted to continue receiving trade goods. In exchange, these “Country Friends” provided farm exports that were desired by people living in cities. The postscript suggests that the Schuylers have contracted to provide grains to the company as part of their payment. This would have been a desired crop because New York City, while connected to many farms up north of the city itself, required more food crops from much further north to ensure all were furnished with regular goods. The writer is desirous of receiving those goods, but wants to keep Schuyler informed that both the company and the Schuylers were placing themselves in danger should the illegal exports be found out. The government, the Continental Congress, had the power to put a stop to all of their activities. While appearing cognizant of the dangers, the company used the postscript to assure Schuyler that all cautions were being taken for the financial benefit of all involved.  

"The Bostonian Paying the Excise-Man," 1774.

These excerpts from the letter can hint at the other frustrations felt by the writer about the importation ban, as the ban most likely cut off access to a reliable income from selling highly sought after imported goods. The first section, in the main text of the letter, reads “great Obstinacy on our part & some thing very Similar to it in England, will we fear preclude any Negotiation till our mutual necessity Oblige us to addapt [sic] some pacific System.” The writer seemed to feel as though both England and the colonies were stubborn about addressing each other or working to solve their mutual concerns. Which, more importantly for him, was impeding his ability to conduct business. He was willing to “adapt” to whatever was best to continue business, but was frustrated at the increased risk involved. In the postscript, the writer expressed other worries as well. He was singularly concerned that “the Government will put a stop to our Exports.” This would not only put the business in financial trouble, but there could also be legal concerns for the “smugglers” and their buyers.  

The legal trouble for both the company and the Schuylers as they conducted these black-market deals came from the Committees of Correspondence that were established locally and sanctioned by the Continental Congress in the Articles of Association. These committees’ primary role was in disseminating information and rulings made by the Continental Congress in support of the “Patriot” movement. Due to loose regulations, many of these committees expanded their role into the realm of enforcing Congressional decisions and rooting out Loyalists agents. Philip Schuyler, later on in the Revolution, worked with these Committees when he created lists of Albany Loyalists, but, prior to the Revolution—and even during it—he was breaking the laws enforced by the Committees.

While Schuyler’s wealth likely protected him from a majority of the possible censure, the social risk of having his loyalties questioned was present.  If Schuyler was caught breaking any Continental Congress rulings, he could have been censured or steeply punished by the Committees and their agents. In New York, the Committees mainly resorted to social and political censure, but other colonies where more radical groups, like the Sons of Liberty, were in charge of the retaliation, often responded with more unrestrained violence. Images of extreme violence done towards citizens stem from more radical or violent responses to non-compliance to the Continental Congress’ propositions, but were somewhat rare on the whole throughout most colonies. These concerns were not enough, however, to force the Schuylers to go without their desired goods. 

This letter is one clear example of Philip Schuyler’s actions with the black market during the pre-Revolution years, but there are more. Another example is in a letter written to Philip Schuyler by friend and business partner, John Taylor, who purchased goods for Schuyler during the Quebec Campaign during March of 1776 (If you are interested in learning more about this, please check out our blog post Taken Up North Sold For A Carpet). The items purchased in 1776 were similarly precarious for Philip Schuyler due to the trade embargos in place at the time.

"Still Life With Fruit and a Cockatoo" 
by Joeef Schuster, 1851.

Despite the war, the Schuylers were determined to enjoy all of the luxuries they were accustomed to not only for Twelfth Night, but year-round. While the holiday may have looked different for many in 1775, the Schuylers didn’t suffer from the bans as many others did. Smuggling came with significant risk for all involved—from the suppliers of goods who courted danger obtaining items, to the consumers who directly skirted the carefully assembled Articles of Association and non-importation bans. But, to the Schuylers, it was a risk worth taking. 

Bibliography

Breen, T.H. The marketplace of revolution: How consumer politics shaped American independence (Oxford University Press, 2004)

Ketchum, Richard M. (2002). Divided Loyalties, How the American Revolution came to New York. Henry Holt and Co.

Levy, Barry. (2011). tar and feathers and English identity.

Norton, Mary Beth. 1774: The Long Year of Revolution (Vintage, 2021).

Oliver, Peter. Origin & progress of the American Rebellion; a Tory view (1961).

Schlesinger, Arthur Meier. The Colonial Merchants and the American Revolution, 1763–1776 (1917).

Warford-Johnston, Benjamin. “American Colonial Committees of Correspondence: Encountering Oppression, Exploring Unity, and Exchanging Visions of the Future.” The History Teacher 50, no. 1 (2016): 83–128. http://www.jstor.org/stable/44504455.

Preparing for Twelfth Night

 

Thank you to Ella and Kate Weller for creating these fabulous slides for us! If you want to see Kate's tutorials on how to make a Twelfth Night cake click here and here. You can read our blog post about the creation of Twelfth Night here, one with three eighteenth century cookie recipes for you to try out here, and a one with a Twelfth Night cake recipe here.

Template for Twelfth Night Crown

Here is the template to create your very own Twelfth Night crown! Copy the image below and size it to fit an 8x11 sheet of construction paper. You can see our video with instructions here. 

Making the Twelfth Night Cake

A reproduction Twelfth Night cake.

It’s almost Twelfth Night, which means our “Salutations of the Season!” celebration is nearing! To be fully prepared, what do you need most? Why a Twelfth Night cake, of course! This cake was the centerpiece of Twelfth Night celebrations. It was typically white cake with white frosting. Small gum figures decorated the top. But don’t forget the most important part—the bean! A bean was baked into the Twelfth Night cake, and the person who got the bean in their slice of cake was the king or queen of Twelfth Night. If you don’t want to bake a bean into your cake, equally historically accurate to the time period is handing out slips of paper. Whoever gets ones marked with an x is the queen or king of Twelfth Night.

Do you want to try making your own Twelfth Night cake? Here’s our recipe—enjoy!

Twelfth Night Cake

Ingredients

½ lb. unsalted butter, room temperature

¼ tsp. ground cinnamon

½ lb. sugar

½ tsp. grated nutmeg

5 eggs, beaten

½ lb. raisins, soaked in brandy

¼-cup brandy

1 cup blanched almonds, chopped

½ lb. all-purpose flour

1 dried bean (optional)

Directions

1. Preheat the oven to 300 degrees.

2. In a mixing bowl, cream the butter and sugar with a wooden spoon until pale and lemon-colored.

3. In a separate bowl beat the eggs. Add the eggs and brandy to the butter-sugar mixture. Stir in the flour and the spices and mix thoroughly. Add the raisins (reserve the brandy), almonds, and (optional) good-luck bean. Mix thoroughly.

4. Butter a 12-inch cake tin and line it with buttered wax paper. Pour in the cake mixture and bake for three hours. If the top browns too much during cooking, cover with foil.

Glaze

Ingredients

1 cup confectionary sugar

¼ cup brandy

Directions

1. Mix the raisin-soaked brandy with the sugar until smooth.

2. Pour over the top of the cake.

3. Garnish with additional powdered sugar if desired.

Three 18th Century Recipes for Twelfth Night

Twelfth Night cookies.

Our “Salutations of the Season!” celebration is getting closer and  closer! Do you want try your hand at 17^th and 18^th century recipes? The first one, Schuyler Spice Cookies, is inspired by a  recipe said to be made in the Schuyler household. Spices were  popular—especially around Twelfth Night—and these cookies  are rather Dutch in style. Even if the Schuylers didn’t use  this exact recipe, it is likely a similar cookie was common in the  Schuyler household during the Christmas season.

The other two recipes are adapted from a local Dutchwoman’s  18^th century cookbook. The author, Maria van Rensselaer (1749-  1830), lived at Cherry Hill, just down the road from Schuyler  Mansion. Her recipes range from the 18^th to 19^th centuries in  date.

The first of her recipes we’re sharing are Seed Cake  Cookies.  These cake-like cookies are easy to make—great for a beginner! Sometimes, they’re still made in Crailo’s 17^th century hearth today.

The last recipe, the van Rensselaer Tea Cookies, is likely the oldest Dutch American cookie recipe in existence.

Now let’s get baking!

Schuyler House Spice Cookies

Ingredients

1 cup sugar

1 Tablespoon cloves

¾ cup butter

1 Tablespoon coriander

1 egg

1 Tablespoon ginger

¼ cup molasses 

Small dash black pepper (Dutch culinary habit)

2 cups all-purpose flour 

¼ teaspoon salt

2 teaspoons baking soda

1 Tablespoon cinnamon

Directions

1. Preheat the oven to 350 degrees F.

2. Cream together butter and sugar.

3. Add egg and molasses.

4. Sift together the flour, baking soda, salt, cinnamon, cloves, coriander, ginger and pepper; gradually add to mixture.

5. Mix together and roll into small balls. Roll in sugar, then flatten and place on greased cookie sheet and bake for 10 minutes.

Seed Cakes

Ingredients

2 cups all-purpose flour

2 eggs

1 cup sugar

1 tablespoon caraway seeds

1 stick butter

Directions

1. Preheat the oven to 350 degrees F.

2. Cream the butter and sugar with an electric mixer.

3. Add the eggs one at a time and mix well.

4. Add flour and seeds a little at a time, stirring well.

5. Roll the dough into small balls about the size of a grape.

6. Bake for 10 – 15 minutes.

Seed Cakes

van Rensselaer Tea Cookies

Ingredients

2 sticks (1/2 pound butter)

6 oz. cold water

1 ½ cups sugar

3 ½ cups all-purpose flour

Directions

1. Preheat the oven to 350 degrees F.

2. Cream the butter with an electric mixer.

3. Add the sugar a little at a time and continue creaming.

4. Add the water, alternately with the flour.

5. Take the dough out with a spatula, wrap, and refrigerate for an hour.

6. Roll into ½-inch balls and bake 16-18 minutes, until lightly browned on the bottom.

The Creation of Twelfth Night

Singing Round the Star on Twelfth Night
by Conrelius Troost; courtesy of Mauritshuis, The Hague

By Jessie Serfilippi

While originally a Christian religious holiday celebrating the arrival of the Three Kings in Bethlehem, by the 18th century Twelfth Night had transformed into a mixed religious and secular holiday by European colonists in the Americas. In the 18th century, Twelfth Night was celebrated with feasting, drinking, songs, and revelry. It was not celebrated uniformly throughout the colonies, but festivities were common in New York, and the Schuyler household would have been no exception.

As a Dutch family living in an Anglicized colony, they likely drew on both Dutch and English traditions in their celebrations. One of the most iconic Dutch traditions was captured in a painting by Dutch artist Cornelius Troost. This tradition included revelers dressed as the Three Kings carrying an illuminated lantern in the shape of a star going from home to home, singing traditional carols.

Feasting and Drinking

In preparation for the event, tables were carefully decorated with pyramids of apples and oranges, and laden with tiered displays of sugary confections, sweetmeats, cookies, cakes, and nuts. Spices, such as cloves, coriander, pepper, ginger, and cinnamon, were commonly used in Twelfth Night recipes, such as in spice cookies, which were a Dutch tradition. The centerpiece of the table would have been the Twelfth Night Cake, also known as the King or Queen’s Cake. These cakes were typically white and filled with fruit, then covered in hard white icing topped with sugar and gum figures.

Twelfth Night cake at Schuyler Mansion

The Twelfth Night cake also reflected status. The exotic fruits, the spices, the sugar in the frosting and on top of the cake, and the gum figures were costly, and often imported from plantations in the Caribbean and elsewhere. People enslaved by the Schuylers would have prepared the bulk of Twelfth Night foods, alongside making food for the Schuylers and their own families as they typically would on a daily basis. The Twelfth Night cake itself is one item Catharine van Rensselaer Schuyler may have made herself. It was not uncommon for the lady of even a wealthy household, such as the Schuylers’, to take the lead in preparing this elaborate centerpiece of the festivities herself, displaying her own household abilities and attracting the compliments of the guests.

Ornate, costly, and delicious, Twelfth Night cakes were also meant to be a game. A bean was baked inside the cake, and the person who was given the slice containing the bean was crowned the queen or king of the party and placed in charge of the following year’s festivities or, in some households, paying for the feast! 

Punch bowl at Schuyler Mansion

Drinking was another central element of Twelfth Night. One common drink was wassail, a hot spiced wine typically served in a punch bowl. The exact recipe varied depending on the wealth of the family. The drink itself was thought to promote good health and humor. 

Along with wassail came the custom of toasting. This tradition is believed to have originated from the name “wassail,” which had linguistic roots from the expression “to be in good health” in both Old Norse and Old English, and started with a simple “was hail” from the toaster, to which the rest of the party replied “drink hail.” The tradition changed until it reached the 18th century version, much like the current one, of toasting specific people and hopes or wishes.

Decorations

Elaborate decorations such as Christmas trees and stockings did not exist in most North American homes until the 19th century. Instead, interiors were decorated with greenery, such as decorative ropes of pine and small sprigs hung in the windows to brighten an otherwise darker time of the year. Small green wreathes may have adorned doors and mistletoe may have been hung in the house. Vases of holly may have been on tables or mantel pieces. 

Greenery at Schuyler Mansion

Many of these decorations can be connected to Christian beliefs, which in turn descended from Pagan beliefs of greenery representing new life to come in the new year. The green represented new life and hope, and in a more Christian interpretation, harkened to “the hope of victory over death, a green and pleasant eternity.” By the 18th century, these signs of light and life in a dark time of year had become an important part of English tradition, which the Schuylers subscribed to as much as, and later even more so it seems, they did their Dutch roots.

Games

In Dutch tradition, children would await a visit from Sinterklaas, leaving a shoe filled with straw and carrots inside for his horse. If the children were good, they received small gifts like coins, fruit, or candy. If they were bad, they received coal!  

Children were also invited to celebrate Twelfth Night with the adults. All ages enjoyed the toys and games present at most Twelfth Night parties. One game they may have played was Bullet Pudding. To play, a dish mounded with flour had a bullet (or cranberry, or button, etc…) placed atop it. Players took turns “slicing” the “cake.” If the bullet fell on someone’s turn, they had to retrieve it with their mouth, which—with the flour and laughter that was likely to ensue—could have made quite a mess. 

Another game was Hide the Slipper. The players made a circle of chairs, while the person designated “it” stood outside the circle as a shoe was passed around under the sitters’ legs. “It” had to find and tap the shoulder of the person holding the shoe. It wasn’t as easy as it sounds because players would often fake passing the shoe to each other! 

All these aspects of Twelfth Night came together to make for a fun and lively holiday. Are you curious about what it was like to experience Twelfth Night in the 17th and 18th centuries? This year, Crailo and Schuyler Mansion State Historic Sites are virtually hosting their “Salutations of the Season!” event on YouTube, Facebook, Twitter, and Instagram. All are welcome to attend! The festivities will be held on January 6th, 2021. More information is forthcoming. Watch our Twitter, Facebook, Instagram, and YouTube accounts for more details over the following days!

Unless otherwise noted, all information in this post is taken from our Twelfth Night exhibit, typically on display during the event.